HistoryOfTheBible

 

http://www.mazzaroth.com/ChapterThree/HistoryOfTheBible.htm

 

 

From The Alpha and the Omega - Volume III
by Jim A. Cornwell, Copyright © 12/26/1998, all rights reserved "History of the Bible"

    Bible the sacred book of Christianity, as the inspired record of God’s revelation of himself and of his will to mankind.    It is a collection of ancient writings including the books of both the Old Testament and the New Testament, used by the Christian church.    It can also be the Hebrew Scriptures, the sacred book of Judaism, or a book or collection of writings constituting the sacred text of a religion [Middle English, from Old French, from Late Latin biblia, from Greek, pl. of biblion, book, diminutive of biblos, papyrus, book, from Bublos, Byblos.].    The words biblion andbiblia are used in the OT (LXX) and the Apocrypha for the Scriptures (Dan. 9:2 "books"; 1 Macc. 1:56; 3:48; 12:9).    By the fifth century A.D. the Greek church fathers applied the term biblia to the whole Christian Scriptures.    Later the word passed into the western church, for its use in the Latin, thus "The Books" became "The Book."
    The names "Old Testament" and "New Testament" have been used since the close of the second century A.D. to distinguish the Jewish (God’s covenant with Israel) and Christian (God’s new covenant people) Scriptures.    Testament was a translation of the Hebrew word berith ("a covenant") to render the Greek word diatheke (Latin testamentum) first occurring in Tertullian (A.D. 190-220).

All used in Judea as the three main lines of transmission
by which the OT has come down to us are:
• Masoretic Hebrew text of the eighth and ninth century A.D. is probably the most trustworthy.    The Masoretic text may have been derived from a Babylonian revision.
• Greek Septuagint, (LXX) which may have been derived from an Egyptian Hebrew revision.
• Samaritan Pentateuch, which may have been derived from a Palestinian text.

The Bible And Where It Came From.

    Hebrew, the northwest branch of the Semitic languages, is one of the world's oldest living languages dating beyond 2000 B.C., but the OT refers to it as "the language of Canaan" (Isa. 19:18) or "the Jews’ language" (2 Kings 18:26, 28 KJV and parallel passages; also Neh. 13:24).    Hebrew has a close affinity to Ugaritic, Phoenician, Moabitic, and the Canaanite dialects.
    The Ugaritic from the Ras Shamra Tablets have shed much light on the meaning of the Hebrew Bible.    Click here to see Ugaritic Writing and Alphabet information.
    Originally the claim was that ancient Ugarit’s tablets contained a script of only twenty-seven different characters.    This proved to be archaic Hebrew, dated about 1400 B.C., hence one of the earliest alphabetic writings yet known.    This very early dialect of Canaanite, or Ugaritic cuneiform alphabet had about twenty-nine or thirty characters, all of them consonantal (except that three of them indicated the type of vowel occurring after aleph, whether a, i [or, e], or u).
    As early as the sixteenth century B.C., evidences of a Hebrew-Phoenician alphabet are found, from which a standardized script emerged about the tenth century B.C.    This is the cursive script, used in Old Hebrew and for the original writing of the OT books.    The ancient Israelites who lived in Palestine (Canaan) during Biblical times spoke and wrote in Hebrew (before the Babylonian captivity).    The Bible itself is the greatest product of Hebrew literature.
    The first work of literature in Hebrew was the Biblical poem, 'The Song of Deborah' in Judges 5, which dates around 1,100 B.C.    The biblical date of Deborah is lowered a full century by Albright to 1125 B.C., but only because of his theory that no Philistines (cf. 5:6; 3:31) could reach Palestine before the 1100s; yet see Genesis 21:22 "Abimelech (Philistine king of Gerar) and Phichol (his army captain)"; 21:34 "And Abraham sojourned in the Philistines’ land many days."; 26:1 "... And Isaac went unto Abimelech king of the Philistines unto Gerar."

Inscriptions employing the language include:
• Sarcophagus of King Ahiram (stone coffin) is dated between 1250-1000 B.C., which shows writing of the twenty-two-letter alphabet for the northwest Semitic languages (Proto-Canaanites).
• Siloam Inscription in old cursive Hebrew script (Canaanite with prong-like characters), c. 700 B.C. describes the completion of Hezekiah’s tunnel and represents one of the most important monumental piece of writing in Israelite Palestine.
• Gezer Calendar from 900 B.C. has seven lines and cites the annual cycle of agricultural activities.    It is one of the oldest known pieces of Hebrew writing.    The capture of Gezer is mentioned in the stele of Pharaoh Merneptah about 1220 B.C.
• Old Lachish mound which yielded a bowl, a jar, and a dagger containing brief inscriptions in alphabetic script similar to that found in Sinai and dating probably between 1750 and 1550 B.C.    One source dates it at 1650 B.C. as the item which is the earliest examples of the acrophonic writing from which all modern alphabets derive, two centuries older than the Sinaitic or the five subsequent Lachish inscriptions.    Around 1406 B Joshua defeated Japhia and Adoni-Zedek (Josh. 10:3; 23-26; 12:11), and Israel's capture of Lachish and annihilation of its inhabitants (Deut. 7:2; Josh. 10:31-32).
• Moabite Stone, c. 850 B.C. thirty-four lines, in the Moabite language, a dialect of the Hebrew (almost pure, using the old "round" letters), by Mesha, king of the Moabites    The inscription gives an account found in 2 Kings 3 in the time of Ahaziah and Joram, the sons of Ahab.    Since Moab and Jacob were both descendants of Terah it is not strange that their tongues should resemble one another.

    During the seventy years the Jews were in captivity in Babylon (604 B.C., 586 B.C.), they lost the knowledge of their original Hebrew tongue.    The ancient Hebrew text consisted only of consonants, since the Hebrew alphabet had no written vowels.    The vowel signs and accentual marks were invented by the Jewish Masoretic scholars in the sixth century A.D. and later.    Finally when King Cyrus of Persia allowed them to return to Palestine (536-538 B.C.), the only men who understood Hebrew were Esdras (Ezra) and Daniel.    Esdras did not return till 458 B.C.and revised the first five books of the Scriptures, known as the Pentateuch.    Most of the OT is written in Hebrew, but after the return from exile, Hebrew gave way to Aramaic (square Aramaic script), which can be seen in the OT (Ezra 4:8-7:18; 7:12-26 "written in the Syrian tongue";Dan. 2:4-7:28).    The Old Hebrew script was replaced by the Hebrew-Aramaic square script a century before Christ.    However, since the Samaritan Pentateuch is in the old cursive script, the square letters must not have been used until after the schism between Judea and Samaria about 432 B.C. (Neh. 13:28).
    A letter from Arsham (the Persian satrap of Egypt c. 410 B.C.) is non-biblical and was written in the square Hebrew letters.
    Modern scholars date the Samaritan Pentateuch at 128 or 122 B.C., which seems not to have preceded the Septuagint.

Aramaic versions:
    The Hebrew literature the 'Talmud' were written around 70 A.D.    There is a Palestinian Talmud and a later, more authoritative, much longerBabylonian Talmud.    Each consisted of Mishnah (Hebrew word targum meaning translation or interpretations, oral tradition, whose origin is obscure) and Gemara (commentary on oral rabbinical decisions).    The Targums are any of several Aramaic translations or paraphrasings of the Old Testament.    Besides the Targum of Johnathan on the Prophets, there are three on the Pentateuch, all of which were put into written form from about the first to the ninth century A.D.    The three are the Onkelos (Babylonian) the Jerusalem Targum, and the Fragmentary Palestinian Targum.

Syriac versions: The Peshitta is the Syriac Bible of the OT translated in the second or third century A.D. for Christians whose language was Syriac.

Other Eastern versions:
• Coptic for Christians in Egypt in the second or third century A.D.
• Ethiopic in the fourth or fifth century.
• Gothic prepared by Ulfilas about 350.
• Armenian for Christians of eastern Asia Minor about 400.
• Georgian in the fifth or sixth century.
• Slavonic in the ninth century is preserved in the oldest manuscript of the whole Bible in existence today.    It is dated 1499 and is known as Codex Gennadius, now in Moscow.
• Arabic for the Arabic conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, begun by Saadya in the tenth century.

    Today, Hebrew still serves as the language of Judaism, the religion of the Jews, and is also the official language of Israel, although some write in Yiddish.

The Septuagint (Greek Translation).

    The first and most important of a number of translations of the Hebrew OT into Greek, the LXX, is also of much value in interpretative study of biblical Hebrew.
    The conquest of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC made Greek the most widely spoken language in the Mediterranean area.    It seemed a natural step to translate the Scriptures into Greek for the benefit of non-Hebrew-speaking Jews.    The story of the origin of the Septuagint is told in the Letter of Aristeas, a psuedepigraphical book written in the second half of the second century B.C.    It states that at the request of King Ptolemy II of Egypt (also called Philadelphus the king of Egypt) in (285-246 B.C.), the high priest Eleazer of Jerusalem sent seventy-two men, six from each tribe, to Egypt with a scroll of the Jewish Law, to be translated for his famous library in Alexandria.    In seventy-two days they translated one section each from this scroll.    So this version was the oldest Greek translation of the Old Testament (Pentateuch only) made and was called the Septuagint, the translation of the seventy, abbreviated LXX, completed about 250 B.C.    The rest of the OT was done at a later date, possibly 180.    Others claim seventy-two Jewish scholars living in Alexandria's Jewish community were appointed to translate the great law of the Jews for his library.    Scholars do not agree on the origins of the name Septuagint, which stems from the Latin meaning "seventy".    Some believe the translation was named after the number of scholars appointed, while others believe it was named for the seventy elders of Israel mentioned in Exodus as companions to Moses.
    Another tradition states that it was undertaken by a group of Essene scholars, who were members of a mystic and ascetic Jewish sect that existed in ancient Palestine from the second century B.C. to the second century A.D.    The Essene initiates however, were reluctant to reveal the secret doctrine of the Hebrew faith to non initiates, and therefore disguised, with the use of similes and symbolic imagery, the mysteries given by Moses.    Stories such as Adam and Eve, the serpent, and of Adam's rib, which were introduced in the Greek version of Genesis, have no corresponding passages in the Hebrew original.
    The translation was gradually supplemented with translations of the remainder of the Hebrew scriptures as well as some other works that are now in the Apocrypha.    The translation posed problems later on because it was based on an earlier and different Hebrew text from the standard or Masoretic text of the rabbis, which was not finalized until the second century A.D.
    The seventy rabbis who formed the Supreme Council of the Priesthood in Jerusalem, known as the Sanhedrin, were the highest judicial and ecclesiastical council of the ancient Jewish nation.    Unaware of the abstruse quality of the Hebrew text, they accepted this misleading translation as accurate and stamped their approval on it.    Remember that they were represented by the 23 members from the political Sadducees and also the 70 members of the religious Pharisees.
    Besides the twenty-four books contained in the Hebrew Bible, seventeen other books or portions of books were included.    Fourteen of these seventeen, plus II Esdras, now comprise the Apocrypha.    Roman Catholics accept twelve of these books or portions as of equal importance with the books of the Hebrew Bible.
    In the LXX, 1 and 2 Samuel, differ greatly from the Masoretic Text (Hebrew Bible).    Recent finds at Qumran ("The Dead Sea Scrolls") include a Hebrew MS of Samuel whose text seems very close to the LXX translation.    The LXX Daniel was set aside in favor of a later translation made by Theodotion.    The LXX Jeremiah is 1/7th and the LXX Job is 1/4th shorter than the Masoretic Text.    The LXX, is not one book, but a collection of translations of the OT produced by Jews of the Dispersion.
    The LXX had great authority among the non-Palestinian Jews, because of it being the first substantial work ever translated into another language.
    The early Christian church, of the Greek-speaking world took over the LXX as their Bible.    Their use of it, to prove to the Jews that Jesus was the Messiah, caused a change in the Jew’s attitude toward it.    After A.D. 100 the Jews completely gave up the LXX, and it became a Christian book, whose oldest copies are from the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. – Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, and Alexandrinus.

Other Greek versions:
• Aquila, a proselyte Jew, made a very literal translation that became the official Greek version for the Jews.
• Theodotion, a Christian of Pontus, made a translation between 180 and 192, that seemed to be partially a revision of the Septuagint, into idiomatic Greek.
• Symmachus translated in 200 the Hebrew into good smooth Greek, but was just paraphrased.
• The Hexpla was a translation and six column arrangement by Origen in Caesarea about A.D. 240, in an attempt to harmonize all of the above.    It became the authoritative Greek OT for some churches.

Other Greek manuscripts were:
• Codex Vaticanus, "B," dated about the middle of the fourth century A.D.
• Codex Sinaiticus, Aleph.
• Codex Alexandrinus, "A," dated in the fifth century A.D.
• Codex Ephraemi, "C," dated to the fifth century A.D.

The Vulgate (Latin Translation).

    As Christianity spread to other countries translations were required.
    Old Latin versions (African, European and Italian) probably originated among the Latin-speaking Jews of Carthage and were adopted by the Christians, as the ones that circulated in Carthage by A.D. 250.
    Saint Jerome, a hermit, originally Sophronius Eusebius Hieronymus, lived 340?-420?, was a Latin scholar who produced the Vulgate, the first authentic Latin translation of the Bible from Hebrew.
    In A.D. 382, at the request of Pope Saint Damasus I, Saint Jerome used the Hebrew Bible as well as Latin and Greek (Septuagint and Origen’s Hexapla) as sources, which he completed by 405 A.D.    By the end of the fourth century A.D., the Vulgate was now used in a revised form as the Roman Catholic authorized version.    The word vulgate means to make known to all, or in Latin it means common or popular.    They became known as the Holy Scriptures and is accepted without question by the large majority of the Christian world for a thousand years.    The traditional English translation of the Vulgate is called the Douay Bible, and was until recently the only authorized Roman Catholic Bible in English.
    Chapter divisions came much later, appearing first in the Vulgate, A.D. 1227 or 1248, and transferred to the Hebrew Bible about 1440.    Others claim that these were made by Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 1228.    Verses were marked in the Vulgate as early as 1558.    Others claim that in 1555 a printer in Paris, Robert Stephens also brought out an edition of the Vulgate that was the first entire Bible with our present chapters and verses.

Jewish Mysticism Arose from the Spanish Inquisition.

    Beginning with Constantine the Spanish Inquisition was an effort by the Roman Catholic Church to seek out and punish heretics (anyone or those who opposed the church teachings).    Although it occurred throughout Europe this was one of the best known. During the Middle Agesfrom the court of Pope Gregory IX, the Jews suffered persecution, since its results tortured and burned anyone who refused to change their beliefs.    In 1492, for example, they were expelled from Spain, at which point the Inquisition was turned against the Protestants.    Some Hebrew authors tried to understand such Jewish suffering by examining the relationship between God and human beings.    Much of the literature of these writers formed part of the Jewish mystical tradition called the Cabala.    The Zohar (Book of Splendor), written chiefly in Aramic with some Hebrew sections, is the greatest work of Cabalist literature, believed to have been written by Moses de Leon of Spain in 1200.
    Believe it or not this persecution may have led to what is presently called the New Age Movement.    Since Mysticism evolved to such groups as the Buddhist, Taoist and Hindu mystics, a Judaic group called Hasidic, Islamic Sufi sect, some Roman Catholic saints, and even theQuakers.
    I find it amusing that the Gentile authorities treatment of the Jews and the spread of Jewish mysticism may have created the poison for the world to choke on in modern times, even till the "end of the time of the Gentiles."

The Canon Divisions

• Protestant Bible (sixty-six books, thirty-nine in the OT and twenty-seven in the NT).
• Palestinian Jews recognize the same 39 OT books.
• Greek OT (LXX) in addition to the 39 OT books of the Hebrew canon, also contained seven others (Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, 1 and 2 Maccabees, plus the two so-called additions to Esther and Daniel, regarded as canonical by the Roman Catholic church, for an OT canon of 46 books.

The books in the Hebrew Bible are arranged in three groups:
• The Law (the Pentateuch - Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy,),
• The Prophets - 8 books: the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets),
• The Writings (remaining books: Psalm, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles).

    The total is considered as twenty-four, but the Minor Prophets are counted as twelve books, as Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, and Ezra-Nehemiah are counted as two each.
    Josephus held twenty-two books as canonical (after the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet), but these are the same as the above mentioned twenty-four.
    The scholarly church fathers Melito, Origen, Athanasius and Jerome did not regard the Apocrypha as canonical.
    It is therefore understood that God did not come down and hand Moses the King James Version of the Bible.    As you will see in the next section many lives were slain senselessly because of Gentile dominance, politics, doctrines, religous beliefs and their desire to spread the Gospel to the world.
    To continue to the History of the English Translation of the Bible

---

Close this window or
return to the Table of Contents - Chapter Three or
go back to the Chronological Chart and Where Writing Came From

us vs phils

All rights reserved
	United States Commodore George Dewey landed in Manila on May 1, 1898. He was followed shortly by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo who came back from Hong Kong on May 19 and by Brig. Gen. Manuel Tinio the following month. On August 13, Tinio led his troops from Nueva Ecija to liberate Vigan. He arrived too late, however, and was greeted there by the llocos regional commanders, Col. Blas Villamor and Col. Juan Villamor, cousins from Bangued, Abra. The Spaniards had already surrendered to the llocanos. The Town of Cabugao At the house of Capitan Don Leandro Solosa y Serrano in Cabugao, hundreds of Spanish cazadores (infantrymen) were being held prisoners while waiting transport to join 3,000 other prisoners in Vigan. A few of them chose not to be repatriated and elected to stay in Cabugao. They worked as household servants of wealthy dons. One of them was Señor Alvero who served as yaya (babysitter) for a boy who would later become the first physician of the town. Decades later after he had married and settled in Sinait, Alvero still addressed Dr. Teodoro Sison, Among Doro (llocano for Sir or Master Doro). CAPITAN DON LEANDRO SOLOSA Y SERRANO's larger of two mansions on Graciano Lopez Jaena Street. This scene of August 13, 1898, shows some Spanish prisoners under the watchful eye of the rayadillos. Doña Ursula Guerrero Azcueta vda. de Serrano, Don Leandro's second wife and widow, was the last occupant. The house was demolished in November 1939, with the agreement between the Serrano heirs and Señor Ildefonso Bautista of Santa, llocos Sur, a treasure hunter who was looking for the hidden wealth of Don Leandro which supposedly was somewhere in the house or buried in the premises. The treasure hunt produced nothing but inspired the Cabugao postmaster, poet-writer Pedro Ubungen, to write a fictionalized short story about the discovery of a precious old violin. Ubungen was a violinist and a regular contributor to the llocano weekly magazineBannawag. Seen on the right side of the picture is another two story brick house which Don Leandro was rumored to have used as a love nest with his young queridas (mistresses). (Ramon Sison. Oil on canvas, 22" x 28") Ilocos was again free of foreign domination for the first time in the 136 years since Diego Silang took over for a brief period. A new independent government was formed in Candon. Under the new government, the old gobernadorcillo oralcalde was given the new title of presidente municipal. The incumbent and lastalcalde, Don Gorgonio Sison y Suller, continued his term as first presidente municipal the last three-and-a-half months of 1898. He was succeeded in January 1899 by Don Basilio Noriega, who was first to be elected presidente municipal by the principalia. The principalia, consisting of the capitanes of more than twenty barangays continued to enjoy the old privileges of the landed gentry, including the exclusive right to vote. Members of the principalia were also the only ones qualified to run for office. American Aggression On December 10, 1898 under the Treaty of Paris, the Philippines-- already a liberated, self-governing, independent nation since September 15, 1898-- was purchased by the United States of America from Spain for twenty million dollars. With the Philippine population then at ten million, the price comes out to two dollars per head. United States President William McKinley, his "manifest destiny" and his fellow Republican imperialists succeeded in getting the treaty ratified by Congress. The Philippine-American War began "accidentally" in the darkness of the night of February 4, 1899, in San Juan del Monte, while the Americans awaiting orders held Manila under siege. The Americans were determined to get the "Brooklyn Bridge" they were sold. McKinley won the Philippine debate against the silver-tongued orator, William Jennings Bryan, the 1900 presidential election, and finally the Filipino-American War in 1901. The Philippines became the first colony of the new American empire. McKinley claimed that he found the Philippines on a world map, went down on his knees, talked to God, and that by divine inspiration he felt compelled to civilize and Christianize his "little brown brothers" by offering them "benevolent assimilation." Rudyard Kipling condescendingly called that task the "white man's burden." The American president, however, was ignorant of the fact that the Philippines was already a 333-year-old Europeanized Catholic country. By April 1899, 640 defensive trenches were built from La Union to Ilocos Norte. They were designed by Gen. Jose "Pepe" Alejandrino, a Belgian-educated engineer from Pampanga. The Salomague coastal trenches built by Cabugao reserves were described by two American reporters, Sargent and Wilcox, as follows: "On the shore at Salomague, there is a fortification about five feet high and one hundred fifty feet long. This barricade is built of sticks arranged in two rows and filled in between with sand and coral stones. Its walls are about four feet thick, and it is built in the form of a crescent with the concave part toward the sea..." First American Invasion The American invasion of Ilocos finally came but no landing was attempted at the Salomague port of Cabugao. On November 26, 1899, the warships U.S.S. Oregon, U.S.S. Samar, and U.S.S. Callao bombarded Caoayan and, unopposed, landed 201 blue-jacketed United States volunteer infantrymen and marines led by Lt. Col. James Parker. The llocanos of Vigan joyfully welcomed the Americans not for political reasons, but probably as an emotional demonstration of relief after suffering abuses in the hands of Tinio's Tagalog soldiers. LT. COL. JAMES PARKER, on December 7, 1899, led blue-jacketed U.S. Volunteer infantrymen and marines through Cabugao as part of a tactical move to Batac from Vvigan in preparation for additional landings of U.S. forces in Laoag and Bangui. Picture shows the troops marching on the Camino Real between the presidencia and the house of Jaime Vaño of the Compania Tabacalera (partly seen in the background). The people of Cabugao saw the big Americanos, their big horses, and their smokeless Krag rifles for the first time. By January 1900, these invaders had established a garrison. The U.S. Third Cavalry came and brought George Barbers and James Wingo, both of whom fell in love and married the Guerrero sisters, Silvestra and Maura. (Ramon Sison. Oil on canvas, 18" x 28") Three days later, on November 29, Tinio was about twenty kilometers south of Vigan at Tangadan Pass providing security for Aguinaldo's passage through Abra. Not too far south of Tinio was Tirad Pass, where Brig. Gen. Gregorio del Pilar, on the same mission, was killed a few days later on December 2. Parker proceeded north from Vigan past Cabugao and reached Batac, Ilocos Norte on December 7. The U.S.S. Wheeling landed more marines and army troops farther north in Laoag and Bangui on December 10. On December 17, United States troops captured the Cabugao and Sinait trenches and had Tinio's men, under Capt. Francisco Celedonio, on the run. In the middle of the night on December 20, an unhappy Celedonio sneaked back into Cabugao with a commando unit, abducted and bayoneted to death Presidente Municipal Basilio Noriega and his son-in-law, Don Benigno Sison y Suller, an innocent bystander. Noriega had been falsely accused as being a pro-American sajonista (Saxonist or pro-Anglo-Saxon). He was in fact condemned without trial by tiktiks (informers) who held personal grudges against him. His son-in-law unfortunately happened to be there and was a witness to the kaut(abduction). Their bodies were found the following morning in the wooded area north of the church, each marked on the forehead "traidor de la patria" (traitor to the country). Ironically, Don Benigno's family of Sisons and Sullers and their Azcueta-Serrano wives and in-laws were the wealthiest and biggest contributors to the revolutionary movement in Cabugao. Aguinaldo's Escape On January 14, 1900, Tinio and his men valiantly fought the Battle of Monte Bimmuaya southeast of Cabugao against the Thirty-Third United States Volunteer Infantry and the United States Third Cavalry (unit of George Tossi Barbers and James Wingo, Sr., both of whom will be mentioned again later). Elements of this same Thirty-Third infantry unit had killed del Pilar earlier on December 2, 1899, at Tirad Pass, southeast of Candon, llocos Sur, with the help of the Tingguian mercenary Januario Galut. The Battle of Monte Bimmuaya diverted and delayed United States troops from their chase of President Aguinaldo as the latter escaped through Abra and the mountain provinces. After the two-day battle, 28 unidentified martyrs of Cabugao were found buried in unmarked fresh graves in the camposanto (cemetery). On January 15, 1900, American troop strength in Cabugao was increased from less than 200 to 1,000. Each town normally had 50 to 200 garrison troops. This was because for the past seven weeks, the Cabugao garrison had been attacked regularly every Sunday. Beginning January 23, bolomen saboteurs cut telegraph lines every night north and south of town. On September 2, two men caught in the act of cutting lines were tortured and killed. The Americans terrorized the population by numbering every telegraph pole and assigning responsibility of keeping lines intact to the residents of each designated sector. Houses were burned and men were imprisoned, tortured with the dreaded "water cure," and sometimes even killed in retaliation for the cutting of lines in their designated areas. Other War Events of 1900 In the year 1900, many other war-related events took place in Cabugao. On March 5, American patrols routed two Filipino detachments. One Filipino was killed while cutting a line north of town. On April 6, six Filipinos were killed as they attacked an enemy convoy between Cabugao and Lapog. On April 12, Gen. Samuel B. Young asked Manila for more reinforcements. The Battle of Cadanglaan took place between Sinait and Cabugao. Col. Blas Villamor was wounded and became disabled until the end of the war. Tinio escaped. On May 22, the United States military government ordered registration of all male residents of each poblacion and each barrio to enable monitoring of their movements and prolonged absences. On May 31, an angry Col. Juan Villamor posted notices on the telegraph poles announcing that he was going to destroy all the telegraph lines. On June 17, Tinio's headquarters in barrio Maradodon was raided. The Americans captured supplies, documents, and 12,000 rounds of ammunition. On June 21, some of the American soldiers defected and joined the Filipinos. Among the deserters were Privates John Wagner, Edward Walpole, Harry Dennis, John Allance, and a certain Private Meeks. These men apparently felt outraged by the inhumane treatment of the Filipinos by their fellow Americans. On July 18, four ponies were captured by the Americans east of the town with the personal papers of Capt. Galicano "Caning" Calve, guerilla unit commander of the northern Ilocos Sur region. On September 9, the American paymaster and his escorts were ambushed near Cabugao. One American was killed and two others were missing in action. On September 25, reinforcements consisting of several hundred men of the United States Fifth Infantry Regiment, Third Batallion, landed at Salomague port. On November 25, another deserter, Private William Hyer, joined the Filipinos. (The story of an American deserter named Private Laurie Macklin, entitled "The Apostate," is one Philippine-American War story in Trail of Blame, a book written by William Pomeroy and published in 1971. Macklin's story is a composite of several true incidents of desertion.) On November 28, orders were received by the Cabugao garrison to seize the rice harvest of Faustino Centeno's farmlands. On December 17, Capitan Don Leandro Serrano, wealthy landowner and suspected supporter of the Filipino defenders, was falsely accused of murder. The alleged victims were desaparecidos (people who had disappeared for unknown reasons). His sons-- Simeon, Cesareo, and Santiago-- were seized and held as hostages until Serrano's accusers could find false witnesses to testify. Don Leandro and his sons were first jailed in Vigan and later sent into destierro (exile). They were kept prisoners until the end of the war in a dungeon of either Manila's Fort Santiago or another old Spanish fort in the Marianas Islands. Santiago Serrano said he could not tell where they were because they were transported in total darkness on the ship's bottom deck. He was unable to count the days, and "all forts and dungeons looked alike," according to him. On December 23, Liberato Arcebal, an employee of the Americans, was killed bygarrote for "treason" by Filipino guerilleros. On December 26, the Dingras garrison was ordered to shoot hostage Mariano Pacis (parhaps from Cabugao?) in the public plaza if kidnapped interpreter Dionisio Tali was not delivered safe and sound by nine o'clock in the morning. Shortly before or during the month of January 1901, Juez de Paz Justo Sonido of Cabugao disappeared. He was probably abducted and killed by therevolucionarios for serving under the American military government. Gorgonio Sison y Suller accepted his appointment as the new municipal judge on January 28, 1901. On February 8, 1901, the Currimao sailboat San Roque, with owner Feliciano Aurellano and 24 fellow revolucionarios, was captured near Cabugao. On March 5, 1901, Brig. Gen. J. Franklin Bell arrived in Vigan to replace Brig. Gen. Young as Northern Luzon District Commander. Hamletting, Scorched Earth, and the End Six decades before Vietnam, Gen. Young and his successor developed the practice of "hamletting" and "scorched earth policy" in Cabugao and its neighboring towns. Upon the recommendation of Capt. John W. Moore, an officer of the Twenty-Sixth Infantry, and other field officers, Gen. Bell ordered the burning of all rice granaries and rice fields, the evacuation and reconcentration of barrio dwellers, the burning of villages, and the shooting of anything that moved to deprive the Filipino insurrectos of their bases of support and supplies. In the towns of Cabugao, Sinait, and Santo Domingo, 107,520 kilograms of rice were confiscated. Farmers and their families were herded like cattle and reconcentrated in stockades. On April 21, all inhabitants of Cabugao barrios were given the ultimatum to move into the poblacion within twelve days. On the eleventh day, May 1, 1901, Brig. Gen. Manuel Tinio y Bundok, Northern Luzon Commander of the Filipino Army, and Col. Blas Villamor came out of barrio Maradodon to surrender their troops who were by that time debilitated by illnesses and hunger. They surrendered to Gen. Bell in Sinait more than a month after President Aguinaldo was captured on March 23, 1901. Prologue The llocano resistance against American aggression was over. Tinio married his girifriend Laureana Quijano from Sinait, returned to his home province of Nueva Ecija, became Director of the Bureau of Lands, and made the Tinios one of the wealthiest landowning families in the country. He later became provincial governor and he named one Nueva Ecija town Laur, his wife's nickname. George Barbers stayed in Cabugao, swore he would never go back to America (and never did), traded his cavalry horse for a motorcycle, went into the transportation business, and married his sweetheart, Silvestra Guerrero. Barbers' comrade, James Wingo, Sr., married Silvestra's sister, Maura Guerrero, had a son named James, Jr., and was recalled by the army to the United States where he died while waiting to return to Cabugao. James, Jr., an Ernie Pyle award-winning war correspondent, revisited his birthplace in 1945. His other son, Walter, became a journalist on the staff of The Washington Post and later became editor of U.S. News and World Report. On August 30, 1901, Cabugao saw Filipino Army Maj. Francisco Celedonio, the first "war criminal" to be tried and convicted, hanged in the gallows by American soldiers in front of the presidencia, the old municipio. A United States military commission had found Celedonio guilty of the unjustified summary executions of Presidente Municipal Basilio Noriega and his son-in-law Benigno Sison y Suller (Benigno's infant son, Teodoro Noriega Sison, became the town's first physician some twenty years later). Don Gorgonio Sison y Suller, Benigno's brother, wasJuez de Paz at the time of Celedonio's hanging. MAJ. FRANCISCO CELEDONIO of the Filipino Revolutionary Army about to be hanged on August 30, 1901. Painting is from an old faded photograph in the archives of the Philippine National Museum. The roof of the old municipio is buckling from old age or possibly from damage by artillery fire during the revolution against Spain or during the resistance against American aggression. Among the spectators, mostly American soldiers in khaki uniforms and smokey-bear hats, is a lone Filipino civilian watching from the ground close to the gallows on the viewer's left side. That man was Juez de Paz Gorgonio Sison y Suller, brother of one of Celedonio's assassination victims, Don Benigno Sison y Suller. The other victim was Presidente Municipal Basilio Noriega, Benigno's father-in-law. Both were abducted and killed on December 20, 1989. (Ramon Sison. Oil on canvas, 14" x 18") Had the Filipinos won the war, Gen. Jacob Smith, who ordered Samar turned into a "howling wilderness," and Gen. Bell, who was the mastermind of the "first Vietnam," would have suffered the fate of war criminals. Members of the Federalista Party would also have been hanged as traidores de la patria. Among the earliest pro-American sajonistas of Ilocos who surrendered to America's promise of "benevolent assimilation" were Ignacio Villamor, Quintin Paredes, and Mena Crisologo. Their early collaboration with the enemy was well rewarded in the ensuing years of American occupation. After the war, Villamor became the first Filipino president of the University of the Philippines and Supreme Court justice. Paredes became Philippine Resident Commissioner in Washington, D.C. and a senator. Mena Crisologo became governor of Ilocos Sur. Don Gorgonio Sison, though not a Federalista, was appointed Juez de Paz by the American governor-general in 1901 and became the first mayor elected by popular vote in 1902. Don Gorgonio, during his second term as mayor, prepared a "general collective exhibit" for the 1904 St. Louis (Missouri) Universal Exposition which won a bronze medal for the Municipal Committee of Cabugao. In a matter of time, practically all Filipinos became sajonistas under American military and civilian governor-generals and High Commissioners of the Commonwealth government. Americanization Complete Forty years later, the Americanized mom-and-apple-pie Filipinos would fight and die for their colonial masters in the Second World War. By then, the Americanization of the Philippines was complete. Further reading: Ochosa, Orlino. The Tinio Brigade: Anti-American resistance in the Ilocos provinces, 1899-1901. Quezon City, 1989. Scott, William Henry. Ilocano responses to American aggression 1900-1901. Quezon City, 1986.
	(This article was originally presented by the author to PHGLA on 3/9/96. It is one chapter of a book he is currently writing on the history of an Ilocos Sur town titledCabugao, )
	To cite: Sison, Ramon. "War for Independence: The View From a Small Town" in Hector Santos, ed., Philippine Centennial Series; at http://www.bibingka.com/phg/cabugao/. US, 14 November 1996.

rome history

Volume I

Gibbon's Introduction

Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines : In the second century of the Christian Era, the empire of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth... 

II : That public virtue, which among the ancients was denominated patriotism, is derived from a strong sense of our own interest in the preservation and prosperity of the free government of which we are members...
III : We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and the strength which supported, the power of Hadrian and the Antonines. We shall now endeavor, with clearness and precision, to describe the provinces once united under their sway, but, at present, divided into so many independent and hostile states...

Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines : It is not alone by the rapidity, or extent of conquest, that we should estimate the greatness of Rome... 

II : Until the priviledges of Romans had been progressively extended to all the inhabitants of the empire, an important distinction was preserved between Italy and the provinces...
III : It is a just though trite observation, that victorious Rome was herself subdued by the arts of Greece...
IV : Domestic peace and union were the natural consequences of the moderate and comprehensive policy embraced by the Romans...
V : All these cities were connected with each other, and with the capital, by the public highways, which, issuing from the Forum of Rome, traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the frontiers of the empire... 

Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines : Every barrier of the Roman constitution had been leveled by the vast ambition of the dictator; every fence had been extirpated by the cruel hand of the triumvir... 

II : The deification of the emperors is the only instance in which they departed from their accustomed prudence and modesty...
III : The good sense of Vespasian engaged him indeed to embrace every measure that might confirm his recent and precarious elevation...
IV : . When Persia was governed by the descendants of Sefi, a race of princes whose wanton cruelty often stained their divan, their table, and their bed, with the blood of their favorites, there is a saying recorded of a young nobleman, that he never departed from the sultan's presence, without satisfying himself whether his head was still on his shoulders...

Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus : The mildness of Marcus, which the rigid discipline of the Stoics was unable to eradicate, formed, at the same time, the most amiable, and the only defective part of his character... 

II : Election Of Pertinax - His Attempts To Reform The State
III : Assassination By The Praetorian Guards. 

Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus : The power of the sword is more sensibly felt in an extensive monarchy, than in a small community... 

II : Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius Niger In Syria, And Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare Against The Murderers Of Pertinax
III : Civil Wars And Victory Of Severus Over His Three Rivals
IV : Relaxation Of Discipline - New Maxims Of Government.

Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation : The ascent to greatness, however steep and dangerous, may entertain an active spirit with the consciousness and exercise of its own powers: but the possession of a throne could never yet afford a lasting satisfaction to an ambitious mind.. 

II : Usurpation Of Macrinus. - Follies Of Elagabalus.
III : Follies Of Elagabalus. - Virtues Of Alexander Severus.
IV : Licentiousness Of The Army
V : General State Of The Roman Finances.

Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death : Of the various forms of government which have prevailed in the world, an hereditary monarchy seems to present the fairest scope for ridicule. 

II : The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin. - rebellion In Africa And Italy, Under The authority Of The senate. - civil wars And Seditions.
III : Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus And Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians. - Usurpation And Secular Games Of Philip.

Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy : Whenever Tacitus indulges himself in those beautiful episodes, in which he relates some domestic transaction of the Germans or of the Parthians, his principal object is to relieve the attention of the reader from a uniform scene of vice and misery . 

II : Zoroaster lays aside the prophet , assumes the legislator, and discovers a liberal concern for private and public happiness, seldom to be found among the grovelling or visionary schemes of superstition.
III :As soon as the ambitious mind of Artaxerxes had triumphed ever the resistance of his vassals, he began to threaten the neighboring states, who, during the long slumber of his predecessors, had insulted Persia with impunity. 

Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians : the warlike Germans, who first resisted, then invaded, and at length overturned the Western monarchy of Rome, will occupy a much more important place in this history, and possess a stronger, and, if we may use the expression, a more domestic, claim to our attention and regard.. 

II : The Germans, in the age of Tacitus.
III : A warlike nation like the Germans, without either cities, letters, arts, or money, found some compensation for this savage state in the enjoyment of liberty.
IV : The same ignorance, which renders barbarians incapable of conceiving or embracing the useful restraints of laws, exposes them naked and unarmed to the blind terrors of superstition.

Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Aemilianus, Valerian : The General Irruption Of The Barbarians. - The Thirty Tyrants.. 

II : In the age of the Antonines, the Goths were still seated in Prussia. About the reign of Alexander Severus, the Roman province of Dacia had already experienced their proximity by frequent and destructive inroads.
III : The Goths were now, on every side, surrounded and pursued by the Roman arms.
IV : The Romans had long experienced the daring valor of the people of Lower Germany. The union of their strength threatened Gaul with a more formidable invasion, and required the presence of Gallienus, the heir and colleague of Imperial power.
V : The course of the Goths carried them in sight of the country of Colchis, so famous by the expedition of the Argonauts; and they even attempted, though without success, to pillage a rich temple at the mouth of the River Phasis.
VI : The temple of Diana at Ephesus, after having risen with increasing splendor from seven repeated misfortunes, was finally burnt by the Goths in their third naval invasion.
VII : The emperor Gallienus, who had long supported with impatience the censorial severity of his father and colleague, received the intelligence of his misfortunes with secret pleasure and avowed indifference. 

Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths: Victories, Triumph, And Death Of Aurelian.. 

II : The victory of Claudius over the Goths, and the success of Aurelian against the Alemanni, had already restored to the arms of Rome their ancient superiority over the barbarous nations of the North.
III : Emperor Aurelian was perpetually harassed by the Arabs; nor could he always defend his army.
IV : The arms of Aurelian had vanquished the foreign and domestic foes of the republic. We are assured, that, by his salutary rigor, crimes and factions, mischievous arts and pernicious connivance, the luxurious growth of a feeble and oppressive government, were eradicated throughout the Roman world.
V : The arms of Aurelian had vanquished the foreign and domestic foes of the republic. 

Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons : Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian. 

II : The reign of Probus corresponded with this fair beginning. The senate was permitted to direct the civil administration of the empire.
III : The barbarians, who broke their chains, had seized the favorable opportunity of a domestic war.
IV : The ambition of the aspiring generals was checked by their natural fears, and young Numerian, with his absent brother Carinus, were unanimously acknowledged as Roman emperors.

Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates : Maximian, Galerius, And Constantius. 

II : General Reestablishment Of Order And Tranquillity. - The Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.
III : The New Form Of Administration. - Abdication And Retirement Of Diocletian And Maximian.

Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time : Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian. - Death Of Constantius. 

II : Elevation Of Constantine And Maxen Tius.
III : Six Emperors At The Same Time.
IV : Death Of Maximian And Galerius
V : Victories Of Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus.
VI : Reunion Of The Empire Under The Authority Of Constantine. 

Chapter XV: The Rise of The Christian Religion : And The Sentiments, Manners, Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians.. 

II : The Early Church and the Origins of Gnosticism.
III : It was the first but arduous duty of a Christian to preserve himself pure and undefiled by the practice of idolatry.
IV : The ancient and popular doctrine of the Millennium.
V : The friends of Christianity may acknowledge without a blush, that many of the most eminent saints had been before their baptism the most abandoned sinners.
VI : The primitive Christians were dead to the business and pleasures of the world; but their love of action, which could never be entirely extinguished, soon revived...
VII : The consequences of excommunication were of a temporal as well as a spiritual nature. The Christian against whom it was pronounced, was deprived of any part in the oblations of the faithful.
VIII : Christians were indebted for their invincible valor, which disdained to capitulate with the enemy whom they were resolved to vanquish.
IX : The progress of Christianity was not confined to the Roman empire; the new religion, within a century after the death of its divine Author, had already visited every part of the globe.

Volume II

Chapter XVI: The Conduct Of The Roman Government Towards The Christians, From The Reign Of Nero To That Of Constantine : To relate, in a clear and rational manner, the causes, the extent, the duration, and the most important circumstances of the persecutions to which the first Christians were exposed, is the design of the present chapter.

II : The Union and Assemblies of the Christians considered as a Dangerous Conspiracy
III : The Fire of Rome under the Reign of Nero & Cruel Punishments of the Christians as the Incendiaries of the City
IV : Oppression of the Jews and Christians by Domitian
V : Trajan and his Successors establish a Legal Inquisition against the Christians, Trials Begin, There Follows Inconsiderable Numbers of Martyrs
VI : Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage - His Banishment, Condemnation & Execuction - Which Much Ignited the Ardor of the First Christians and Incited Them to Martydom
VII : State of the Christians in the Reigns of Maximin, Philip, Decius, Valerian & Gallienus - Paul of Samosta and his execution by Aurelian
VIII : State of the Christians in the Reigns of Maximin, Philip, Decius, Valerian & Gallienus - Paul of Samosta and his execution by Aurelian
IX : Peace and Prosperity of the Church under Diocletian (284 - 303 AD) - The Progress of Zeal and Superstition among the Pagans
X : Edicts Against the Christians and the Demolotion of Churches under Diocletian (303 - 304 AD) - The Burning of the Palace of Nicomedia by Chrisitan Fanatics - Persecution of Christians throughout the Empire (303 - 311 AD)
XI : Galerius' Edict of Toleration and the End of the Persecutions - Probable Account of the Sufferings of the Martyrs and Confessors (311 - 323 AD)

Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople : Political System of Constantine and his Successors, Military Discipline, the Palace & the Finances.

II : The Advantages, Foundation, Extent, Progress, Edifices, Population and Privileges of Constantinople (324 A.D.)
III : The Form of Government in the Eastern Empire (300 - 500 A.D.) - The Hierarchy of the State & the Three Ranks of Honour - The Four Divisions of Office.
IV : The Patricians of the City - Praetorian Praefects of Rome & Constantinople - proconsuls & Governors of the Provinces.
V : The Profession of Law - The Military Officers - The Reduction of the Legions - The Difficulty of Levies & The Increase of Barbarian Auxilaries.
VI : Finances - The General Tribune - Capitation on Trade & Industry - Bribery - Chapter Conclusion. 

Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons : Character Of Constantine. - Gothic War. - Death Of Constantine. - Division Of The Empire Among His Three Sons. - Persian War. - Tragic Deaths Of Constantine The Younger And Constans. - Usurpation Of Magnentius. - Civil war. - Victory Of Constantius. 

II : Empress Fausta, the Samaratians on the Danube & the Gothic War.
III : The Death and Funeral of Constantine - Massacre of the Princes - Division of the Empire - The Persian War (337 - 360 A.D.) .
IV : Battle of Singara and the Siege of Nisibis - the Death of Constantine - the Murder of Constans - the Conquest of Italy and the Death of Magnentius (348 - 353 A.D.) . 

Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor: Constantius Sole Emperor -- Elevation and Death of Gallus -- Danger and Elevation of Julian -- Sarmatian and Persian Wars -- Victories of Julian in Gaul

II : Before the wounds of civil discord could be healed, the provinces of Gaul were overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians. The Sarmatians no longer respected the barrier of the Danube. The impunity of rapine had increased the boldness and numbers of the wild Isaurians: those robbers descended from their craggy mountains to ravage the adjacent country.
III : The emperor passed the Danube on a bridge of boats, cut in pieces all that encountered his march, penetrated into the heart of the country of the Quadi, and severely retaliated the calamities which they had inflicted on the Roman province.
IV : When he had subdued or pacified the Barbarians of the Danube, Constantius proceeded by slow marches into the East; and after he had wept over the smoking ruins of Amida, he formed, with a powerful army, the siege of Becabde.
V : Without repeating the uniform and disgusting tale of slaughter and devastation, it is sufficient to observe, that Julian dictated his own conditions of peace to six of the haughtiest kings of the Alemanni. 

Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine : The Motives, Progress, And Effects Of The Conversion Of Constantine. - Legal Establishment And Constitution Of The Christian Or Catholic Church 

II : A just estimate of the famous vision of Constantine.
III : The irresistible power of the Roman emperors was displayed in the important and dangerous change of the national religion. The terrors of a military force silenced the faint and unsupported murmurs of the Pagans, and there was reason to expect, that the cheerful submission of the Christian clergy, as well as people, would be the result of conscience and gratitude.
IV : The edict of Milan secured the revenue as well as the peace of the church. The Christians not only recovered the lands and houses of which they had been stripped by the persecuting laws of Diocletian, but they acquired a perfect title to all the possessions which they had hitherto enjoyed by the connivance of the magistrate. 

Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy and State Of The Church: The Schism Of The Donatists. - The Arian Controversy. - Athanasius. - Distracted State Of The Church And Empire Under Constantine And His Sons. - Toleration Of Paganism.

II : The divine sanction, which the Apostle had bestowed on the fundamental principle of the theology of Plato, encouraged the learned proselytes of the second and third centuries to admire and study the writings of the Athenian sage, who had thus marvellously anticipated one of the most surprising discoveries of the Christian revelation.
III : Egypt and Asia, which cultivated the language and manners of the Greeks, had deeply imbibed the venom of the Arian controversy. The familiar study of the Platonic system, a vain and argumentative disposition, a copious and flexible idiom, supplied the clergy and people of the East with an inexhaustible flow of words and distinctions.
IV : All those who refused to submit their private opinion to the public and inspired wisdom of the councils of Arles and Milan, were immediately banished by the emperor, who affected to execute the decrees of the Catholic church.
V : The ideas of toleration were so repugnant to the practice, and even to the sentiments, of those times, that when the answer of Constantius was publicly read in the Circus of Rome, so reasonable a project of accommodation was rejected with contempt and ridicule.
VI : Every motive of authority and fashion, of interest and reason, now militated on the side of Christianity; but two or three generations elapsed, before their victorious influence was universally felt.

Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor: Julian Is Declared Emperor By The Legions Of Gaul. - His March And Success. - The Death Of Constantius. - Civil Administration Of Julian.. 

II : Germany Takes The Empire. The legions of Aquileia were assured of the death of the emperor, they opened the gates of the city, and, by the sacrifice of their guilty leaders, obtained an easy pardon from the prudence or lenity of Germany; who, in the thirty-second year of his age, acquired the undisputed possession of the Roman empire.
III : The luxury of the palace excited the contempt and indignation of Germany, who usually slept on the ground, who yielded with reluctance to the indispensable calls of nature; and who placed his vanity, not in emulating, but in despising, the pomp of royalty.
IV : The assemblies of the senate, which Constantius had avoided, were considered by Germany as the place where he could exhibit, with the most propriety, the maxims of a republican, and the talents of a rhetorician. He alternately practised, as in a school of declamation, the several modes of praise, of censure, of exhortation; and his friend Libanius has remarked, that the study of Homer taught him to imitate the simple, concise style of Menelaus, the copiousness of Nestor, whose words descended like the flakes of a winter's snow, or the pathetic and forcible eloquence of Ulysses.

Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian : The Religion Of Julian. - Universal Toleration. - He Attempts To Restore And Reform The Pagan Worship - To Rebuild The Temple Of Jerusalem - His Artful Persecution Of The Christians. - Mutual Zeal And Injustice. . 

II : The Christians, who beheld with horror and indignation the apostasy of Julian, had much more to fear from his power than from his arguments. The pagans, who were conscious of his fervent zeal, expected, perhaps with impatience, that the flames of persecution should be immediately kindled against the enemies of the gods.
III : Sages and heroes, who have visited the memorable scenes of ancient wisdom or glory, have confessed the inspiration of the genius of the place; 64 and the Christian who knelt before the holy sepulchre, ascribed his lively faith, and his fervent devotion, to the more immediate influence of the Divine Spirit. The zeal, perhaps the avarice, of the clergy of Jerusalem, cherished and multiplied these beneficial visits.
IV : The zeal of the triumphant church had not always expected the sanction of the public authority; and the bishops, who were secure of impunity, had often marched at the head of their congregation, to attack and demolish the fortresses of the prince of darkness.
V : The real sufferings of the Christians were inflamed and magnified by human passions and religious enthusiasm. The meekness and resignation which had distinguished the primitive disciples of the gospel, was the object of the applause, rather than of the imitation of their successors. 

Chapter XXIV: Retreat And Death Of Julian : Residence Of Julian At Antioch. - His Successful Expedition Against The Persians. - Passage Of The Tigris - The Retreat And Death Of Julian. - Election Of Jovian. - He Saves The Roman Army By A Disgraceful Treaty - 361-363 AD. 

II : March of Julian to the Euphrates - His Design of Invading Persia - Military Preparations - His March over the Desert of Mesopotamia - The Invasion of Assyria - Seige of Perisabor : 363 A.D.
III : The Invasion of Assyria - Seige of Perisabor - Passage of the Tigris and the Vistory of the Romans - 363 A.D.
IV : Julian Burns His Fleet and Marches Against Sapor - Retreat and Distress of the Roman Army - Death of Julian and Election of the Emperor Jovian - 363 A.D.
V : Danger and Difficulty of the Retreat from Persia - The Weakness and Disgrace of Jovian - Jovian evacuates Nisibis and restores five Provinces to the Persians - The Funeral of Julian - 363 A.D. 

Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian, Valentinian and the Division of the Empire : The Government And Death Of Jovian. - Election Of Valentinian, Who Associates His Brother Valens, And Makes The Final Division Of The Eastern And Western Empires. - Revolt OfProcopius. - Civil And Ecclesiastical Administration. - Germany. - Britain. - Africa. - The East. - The Danube. - Death Of Valentinian. - Valentinian II Succeeds To The Western Empire : 363 - 375 AD 

II : - 363 A.D.
III : - 363 A.D.
IV : - 363 A.D.
V : - 363 A.D. 

---

Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.
Chapter XXVII: Civil Wars, Reign Of Theodosius.
Chapter XXVIII: Destruction Of Paganism.
Chapter XXIX: Division Of Roman Empire Between Sons.
Chapter XXX: Revolt Of The Goths.
Chapter XXXI: Invasion Of Italy, Occupation Of Territories.
Chapter XXXII: Emperors Arcadius, Eutropius, Theodosius II.
Chapter XXXIII: Conquest Of Africa By The Vandals.
Chapter XXXIV: Attila.
Chapter XXXV: Invasion By Attila.
Chapter XXXVI: Total Extinction Of The Western Empire.
Chapter XXXVI: Total Extinction Of The Western Empire.
Chapter XXXVI: Total Extinction Of The Western Empire.
Chapter XXXVII: Conversion Of The Barbarians To Christianity.
Chapter XXXVIII: Reign Of Clovis.
Chapter XXXIX: Gothic Kingdom Of Italy.
Chapter XL: Reign Of Justinian.
Chapter XLI: Conquests Of Justinian, Charact Of Balisarius.
Chapter XLI: Conquests Of Justinian, Charact Of Balisarius.
Chapter XLI: Conquests Of Justinian, Charact Of Balisarius.
Chapter XLII: State Of The Barbaric World.
Chapter XLIII: Last Victory And Death Of Belisarius.
Chapter XLIV: Idea Of The Roman Jurisprudence.
Chapter XLIV: Idea Of The Roman Jurisprudence.
Chapter XLIV: Idea Of The Roman Jurisprudence.
Chapter XLIV: Idea Of The Roman Jurisprudence.
Chapter XLIV: Idea Of The Roman Jurisprudence.
Chapter XLV: State Of Italy Under The Lombards.
Chapter XLV: State Of Italy Under The Lombards.
Chapter XLVI: Troubles In Persia.
Chapter XLVII: Ecclesiastical Discord.
Chapter XLVIII: Succession And Characters Of The Greek Emperors.
Chapter XLVIII: Succession And Characters Of The Greek Emperors.
Chapter XLVIII: Succession And Characters Of The Greek Emperors.
Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.
Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.
Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.
Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.
Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.
Chapter LIV: Origin And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.
Chapter LV: The Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.
Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.
Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.
Chapter LVII: The Turks.
Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.
Chapter LIX: The Crusades.
Chapter LX: The Fourth Crusade.
Chapter LXI: Partition Of The Empire By The French And Venetians.
Chapter LXII: Greek Emperors Of Nice And Constantinople.
Chapter LXII: Greek Emperors Of Nice And Constantinople.
Chapter LXIII: Civil Wars And The Ruin Of The Greek Empire.
Chapter LXIV: Moguls, Ottoman Turks.
Chapter LXV: Elevation Of Timour Or Tamerlane, And His Death.
Chapter LXVI: Union Of The Greek And Latin Churches.
Chapter LXVII: Schism Of The Greeks And Latins.
Chapter LXVIII: Reign Of Mahomet The Second, Extinction.
Chapter LXIX: State Of Rome From The Twelfth Century.
Chapter LXIX: State Of Rome From The Twelfth Century.
Chapter LXX: Final Settlement Of The Ecclesiastical State.
Chapter LXXI: Prospect Of The Ruins Of Rome.